13th century Hindu rule: R.C. Majumdar

“India south of the Vindhyas was under Hindu rule in the 13th century. Even in North India during the same century, there were powerful kingdoms not yet subjected to Muslim rule, or still fighting for their independence… Even in that part of India which acknowledged the Muslim rule, there was continual defiance and heroic resistance by large or small bands of Hindus in many quarters, so that successive Muslim rulers had to send well-equipped military expeditions, again and again, against the same region… As a matter of fact, the Muslim authority in Northern India, throughout the 13th century, was tantamount to a military occupation of a large number of important centres without any effective occupation, far less a systematic administration of the country at large.”

-Dr. R.C. Majumdar

Photo Source: Raja Kumbha's (r.1433-68) famous Vijay Stambh, or Victory Tower (c.1448), to mark his triumph over the Sultan of Malwa; by James Fergusson, 1852